India during The Great Recession

India during The Great Recession India during the ‘Great Recession Introduction: Economists called the financial crisis of the 2007 2009 as the â€Å"Great Recession†, since it is a critical factor and vital cause for the failure of many businesses and significant influencer that has worsened many economies. After US busted out the housing bubble, this raised the rates of sub-prime and mortgage rates. India, the country which is fully an export driven economy like many other countries, the GDP of India mainly relies on domestic consumption. If a countrys GDP is based on domestic consumption, then how this financial tsunami did left vestige in India. The software industry, though not a prime deterministic factor for Indian economy, contributes notable financial transactions towards Indian economy. This brought flow of foreign funds in to the economy. The portfolio investments are visible in the Indian stock exchanges where foreign borrowings and FDI inflows remain less visible. When the global economies started decelerating, all these three factors bound t o decease, which caused an impact on Indias emerging economy. The following essay is presented in a macroeconomic perspective, when the period of growth alternated to a period of stagnation, how Indian economy faced the crisis and how government and Reserve Bank of India responded by taking various steps to handle the economic downturn. Effects in Indian Economy India, after a subsequent growth, experienced a decline in its economy due to the global economic downturn. Faced many uncertainties like stumbling industrial growth, reduced foreign exchange and diminishing rupee value. This economic instability gave a worst hit in Indian economic portfolio by acutely affecting Indian banks. Many public sector units and banks, who invested money into derivatives, were funded by Lehman Brothers Inc and Meryl Lynch Inc for the exposure in the derivatives market. As Lehman Brothers Inc dissolved, many companies including leading banks in India filed losses for few hundred million dollars. The impact of this huge financial crisis affected not only the financial markets primarily, but also the Indian IT industry, availability of global funds, and decrease in exports. Reduced Availability of Global Funds The availability of the global funds, which is accounted as one of the major driving force of the emerging economies like India, was considerably less. The initial stage experienced a rise in the interest rates and the equity prices were affected as the funds transformed into bonds. This less inflow didnt affect the GDP of the Indian economy, since it holds the larger share on its domestic household savings. Indian companies, which relied on the foreign funds for its trading activities, were allowed less access, which affected corporate profitability due to high interest rates, created large demand for the domestic fund access and peer supply pressure restricted from capacity increase. Effects in Indian Exports India faced a sudden decline in its exports during this economic crisis, as a piece of Indian economy is a sole dependent on exports. In October 2008, after 35% growth in the previous months, filed its decrease in exports calculated to 15%, and shipments decreased to 33.33%, recorded to be a largest drop ever. This drop affected many industrial sectors right from the manufacturing goods to jewellery exports. This fall in the exports which lead to many job losses estimated to be 1million and closure of many small units. Effects in Indian IT Industry As discussed above, one of the main tools to transact and access the flow of foreign funds is the Indian IT industry, which contributes significantly a mind share towards the Indian GDP. Indian IT companies are well accredited for its quality software and services, well stated to be a major employment opportunity creator. Since, India has abundant labor resources and plays a major service provider across the globe. Many foreign companies are attracted to the Indian IT companies for its software development and for its service outsourcings. The recent outsourcing boom into India from the foreign countries mainly from US left an impact in the in the IT industry, which is accounted to be a major player in employment and foreign exchange. Approximately 60% of the Indian IT sectors revenue is fully based only on the US suppliers. Around 30% of the industrys revenue is generated from the financial services companies from US. Indian companies were appreciated for its flexibility in work, Qu ality product deliveries and for its efficient services. As there were no intense partnering between Indian firms and major financial services, major share of the IT firms were saved from the impact of the recession. Even though, some Indian IT companies partnered with US financial companies like Lehman Brothers Inc and Meryl Lynch Inc affected a little. This slowdown in the US economy lead 70% of the firms to negotiate for lower rates with their suppliers and nearly 60% have cut back the contracts. The sudden fall in the US economy reduced the growth of Indian IT firms down by 2-3%. Now and then many new outsourcing opportunities were given to the Indian companies from the US firms, which involved in mergers and acquisitions, since the companies would look forward to reduce its selling, general and administrative costs through offshore developments. Even when some firms were affected a little in the economic downturn, however this crisis created equal opportunities in the outsourcing side of the IT industry. Effects in Indian Financial Industry The Indian financial market remained resilient, when the foreign institutional investors disappeared. As the impact of the economic crisis, the mental attitude of investors took a drift to withdraw from risky markets ended with substantial capital outflow that led to a liquidity crunch putting Indian stock market under huge pressure. Indian market continued to be healthier since its prime drive is through domestic consumption which includes productivity in agricultural sector, domestic infrastructure products and through small medium enterprises. Indian banks have gained the investors trust and have most of the deposits, since most of the banks are nationalized and the investments are protected by the Indian Government. Even though the domestic banking is secure as the nationalized banks remain the core of the system. This economic crisis created fragility as many banks invested the investments of US financial firms into the derivatives. Many other factors like decline in the foreign exchange reserves held by Reserve Bank of India, diminished value of rupee with respect to US dollar value, and decline in the share value of the stocks. Steps for the Recovery Efforts made by the Reserve Bank of India to stop the depreciating rupee value led to a proportionate fall in the foreign reserves value of India. The Indian economy experienced a high inflow of money in the form of capital investment. This decreased the value of rupee with dollar; India faced a large trade deficit and factor payments abroad such as debt repayment and profit repatriation. Along with this the stock market side also showed a decline after its steady increase during previous months. The government of India and the Reserve Bank of India started responding to this challenge by following various efforts and procedures in order to maintain a free flow position of rupee liquidity, maintain the foreign exchange liquidity and maintain it credit tracks through strict monetary policies to avoid inflationary pressures. But however, it changed its current approach towards the current scenario eased the monetary constraints by reducing the interest rates, reduced the quantum of bank reserves impounded by central bank and expanded with liberalization to refinance facilities for export credit. To manage the foreign exchange, the Reserve Bank of India made an upward adjustment on interest rate ceiling on the foreign deposits by non-resident Indians. Substantially relaxed the external commercial borrowings regime for corporate. It allowed access to foreign borrowing to non banking financial companies and housing companies. The Reserve Bank of India even took many unconventional measures to boost up the economy from the liquidity scenario. Many Indian banks were given a currency swap facility especially for Indian rupee and US dollar to fulfill the short term fund requirements. IT also supported many non banking financial organizations through an exclusive refinancing channel. Housing and exports were boosted to reach higher levels by enabling the lending resources even to small industries. In addition to the various efforts of the Reserve Bank of India, the Central Government of India constituted the Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act to make the fiscal sustainable in the global economic crisis. The emergency act by the government of India seeks a relaxation from the fiscal targets. Two fiscal acts were launched. Both the fiscal acts valued around 3% of the GDP, which included agricultural farmer loan waiver, infrastructure investments, additional coverage for SMEs and public spending. These fiscals were injected to stimulate demand. As the result the amount accounting to 7% of the GDP made available in the financial system. India is witnessing a mixed result of growth prospects in this economic downturn. The services sector which accounts for the 57% of the Indias GDP and has been the prime growth engine in the last five years is slowing mainly in the construction, transport, communication, trade, hotels and restaurants. Indias exports which account for 15% of the economy grew 3.4% to 168.7 billion in the fiscal year ended march 3108, missing a target of 200 billion set by the government. Corporate margins were down due to the high input costs and the weakened demand. Business confidence had been affected due to the uncertainty in the economic condition. India certainly had some advantages in this financial crisis. The inflation fell sharply, faster than expected, which is measured by the wholesale price index. Thus the fall in inflation should revive consumer demand and reduce costs for the corporate. Fiscal prices will open up the spending on the infrastructure developments as the decline in the global crude oil and naphtha prices will reduce the amount of subsidy given to the oil and fertilizer companies. Imports are expected to shrink more than the exports, to keep the current account deficits at some modest levels. The banking system in India with its well capitalized and prudently regulated measures, helped to sustain the financial market stability to a larger extent. Gaining confidence from the foreign investors on Indian economy is an additional plus, due to the comfortable levels of foreign reserves. The negative impact of the wealth loss effect in the capital markets that have plagued the developed countries will not affect India because majority of Indians have bordered themselves away from assets and equity markets. Credit for agriculture will also remain unaffected because of Indias mandated priority sector lending. The farm waiver package from the government acts as an additional insulation to the agricultural sector. Indias several social safety and awareness programs e.g. the rural employment guarantee program, will protect the poor and migrants from ill effects of global crisis. Conclusion Thus the global financial crisis made a hit in the Indian economy. After severe uncertainties in various sectors such as IT industry in India, Financial market in India, Non availability of global funds and impact in the export business have given broader outlook to the impact of the global financial crisis, starting from US and how it had en route to India. All the fields were discussed with several insights on how the various industries have been affected by this economic downturn, some had opportunities to grow and some were flattened, since the Indian economy is one of the emerging economies in the world, which recorded to be the least affected by this economic crunch. Even government faced a wide range a problems during this credit crunch. The Indian Government and The Reserve Bank of India, worked collaboratively with consultation and coordination, after initiating and implementing various processes, rules and acts, kept this huge economic problem under control. Thus the global economic crisis is inevitable till the economy of the developed, developing countries become stable and self sustainable. The effects of the economic downturn are a test to check the financial stabilities in market and regulations across the global economy.

John Bates Clark :: essays research papers

John Bates Clark John Bates Clark was an American economist who lived from 1847-1938. He played an important role in the development of marginal productivity, and had a great influence on the development of economic thought in the United States. Clark was educated at Amherst College and at the University of Heidelberg in Germany. He taught at Carlton College in Northfield, Minnesota from 1875 to 1881. He then moved on to teach at Smith College, Amherst, Johns Hopkins and Columbia from which he retired in 1923. In formulating the Neoclassical theory of the firm, John Bates Clark took over the classical categories of land, labor, and capital and simplified them in two ways, this simplification was the theory of marginal productivity. First, he assumed that all labor is homogenous, which meant that one labor hour is a perfect substitute for any other labor hour, but when marginal productivity was decreasing, the industry found it more profitable to replace labor with machinery. Clark believed that to make a sound economy wages had to be equal to the marginal productivity of labor. This was also beneficial to both the industry and the labor. Secondly, Clark ignored the distinction between land and capital, grouping together both kinds of non-human inputs under the general term "capital," which he then assumed that the broadened "capital" is homogenous. John took this Neoclassical approach one step further than others in applying it to the business firm and the maximization of profits. One of the results was a theory of the distribution which demonstrated that market outcomes were just. Clark also believed that technological change would lead to an increase in the standard of living which he felt was one of the chief goals of any economic system. He felt that with this technological change, labor would be more productive and lead to higher profits for industry. When the labor would see that industry was making higher profits, they would demand its share of the profits for their hard work. The labor's higher wages and the industries' higher profits would increase incomes and better the social living for everyone. Among Clark's works are The Philosophy of Wealth (1886), The Distribution of Wealth (1899), and Essentials of Economic Theory (1907).

Cyber Language Research Script

Now I am going to introduce the cyber language which is used by foreigners. English cyber language usually comes from online games, video games and general pop cultural, like movie, youtube video clips, and so on. People usually take the first alphabet of the words in a phrase and combine them into a new word. And these are some of the examples of acronym. They are commonly use all over the world. I think these examples you all may be familiar with, so now I am going to introduce some not so familiar examples. LOL is obviously a example of acronym, which is a short form of laughing out loud.People take each word’s first alphabet to create LOL. And for ‘he’s 404’ means he is clueless. This word includes coinage and ideogram. For coinage, usually when a web page cannot be found, then the internet will pop up a 404 web page to inform you. Therefore when we cannot find someone, we can call him 404. And for ideogram, people instead of saying directly he’s clueless, they refer to the picture of the web site 404, so it is a ideogram. The next one is ASAIK. ASAIK means ‘as soon as I know’. It is also an example of acronym. It is a short form of the phrase as soon as I know.And for the next example, it is easy to know what it means. It means see ya. It includes compounding, because it is combined with 2 words, see and ya. And also the letter C is a homophone of the word see. They both pronounce in the same pronunciation. At the same time, it also includes syllabic writing system and rebus writing system. It is a syllabic writing system, because C represents /si:/ to replsce see /si:/ ,so is syllabic writng At last, it includes rebus writing system, because it uses another word with the same sound to replace it.The word see is replaced by the letter C, and the you is replaced by YA. And at last, this word means night. It includes syllabic writing system, the nine : /nain/ replace nigh /nai/. And it sticks with the letter â⠂¬Ëœt’, which is an alphabetic writing system. Also it is same as CYA, it also includes rebus writing system. The sound nigh is replaced by a word which is similar its sound, nine. Emoticons is a pictographic writing. It use different kinds of punctuation to form a facial expression.This emoticons are usually use in computers, mobile and also other communicating devices and forum. These emoticons can express our feelings even more direct, sometimes it is better than using words to express our feelings. And also these emoticons can help us to save time. For example, if we want to express we are so happy, instead of typing alphabets, we type the punctuations into a smiley face, it would save a lot more time. Type happy, we need to type 5 alphabets, but a smiley face, only needs 2 punctuation, and that’s it.Therefore it really save time form typing words. Because of the efficiency of emoticons, it is now a trend all over the world, and among all the countries, japan is on e of the countries which use emoticons the most. And here are the examples of emoticons. We can see that there are a lot of emoticons to express different kinds emtions. Taiwanese and mainlanders may also miscommunicate throughout a conversation, although they share the same language,Putonghua. The miscommunicate is because of their cultures, each one develop their own kinds of words into their language e. . (1) Taiwanese may use ‘ ‘ to express you are so annoying. But when the mainlanders saw this, they may misunderstand as you are such a motorbike. It would be a totally different ecplanation. And there is also another e. g. (2)mainlanders may use ‘? ‘ to mean being frightened. But in Taiwan, it reminds people that the post in the forum would disclose a play's information. So they use the same word, but the meaning of the word ’? ’ means differently to different culture and nation.

The Power of Emotion Essay

The Power of Emotion Essay The Power of Emotion Essay The power of the human mind is remarkable. The emotions the mind creates influence the decisions and actions of individuals; these feelings can leads to one's success or one's failures. In William Shakespeare's Hamlet, the emotion of fear plays a significant role in the advancement of the plot through Hamlet's fear of the unknown, Claudius' fear of retribution, and Gertrude's fear of loneliness. Due to the unpredictable outcome of the future, Hamlet fears taking action in the present. Through out the play procrastination in one of Hamlet's predominant flaws that keeps him from following through with his course of action. Hamlet feels the needs to ensure that Claudius is responsible for his father's untimely death and does so by sharing his plan with Horatio. He instructs him to: "Observe mine uncle: if his occulted guilt do not unkennel in one speech, It is a dammed ghost that we have seen..." (3.2. 79-81) Hamlet continuously delays his plan for revenge by going to great lengths in order to prove Claudius' guilt. He needs confirmation numerous times before he takes action. These delays are a result of his fear for his unknown future. The immediate remarriage between Gertrude and Claudius following the death of Hamlet Sr demonstrates the vulnerability and fear of loneliness that Gertrude possesses. The sudden romance has an impact on Hamlet that causes him to display his distaste towards his mother when he says: Let me not think on't Frailty, thy name is woman! A little month, or ere those shoes were old With which she followed my poor father's body, Like Niobe, all tears;why she, even she, O God! a beast that wants discourse of reason Would have mourn'd longer, married with mine uncle, My father's brother, but no more like my father Than I to Hercules: within a month; (1.2. 147-153) Gertrude uses the attention of another man to overcome her grief. In this speech Hamlet compares her to a beast and expresses his feelings of betrayal by his mother. He recognizes her lack of independence and he refers to her as a disgrace. Gertrude's fear of loneliness affect her emotions and contribute to Hamlet's reasoning. Hamlet's unpredictable state of mind and impetuous actions leave Claudius uncertain and in fear of retribution. Following the performance The Mousetrap Claudius expresses his outrage towards Hamlet. He comes to

Autism and the link to Mercury-containing vaccines

Autism and the link to Mercury-containing vaccines Free Online Research Papers Autism, can it be caused by a mercury-containing vaccine? This is a question that hasn’t been answered very clearly. Therefore, causing parents, of children with autism, to poor their time and money into unproductive pursuits; other parents become afraid to vaccinate their children. So what are the real causes of autism? First, how does mercury affect the human body? To start off, there are three forms of mercury: methyl mercury, elemental mercury, and other mercury compounds. Methyl mercury is normally absorbed into the body by eating fish and shellfish that contain methyl mercury. The effect of methyl mercury in infants, children and even unborn babies is impaired neurological development. Elemental mercury is only toxic when it’s in vapor form and absorbed through the lungs. The effects of elemental mercury, depends on the amount of exposure. For small amounts, the symptoms are tremors, emotional changes, insomnia, neuromuscular changes, headaches, disturbances in sensations, changes in nerve responses, and performance deficits on tests of cognitive function. At higher exposures symptoms are kidney effects, respiratory failure and death. Other mercury compounds, inorganic and organic, are both absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract. High exposure can affect the gastrointestinal tract , the nervous system, and the kidneys. Second, what is autism? Autism is a lifelong developmental disorder, characterized by impaired social interaction, social communication and social imagination. (Fernandes, 2010) It is also know as a group of illnesses that involve delays in the development of many basic skills, most notably the ability to socialize or form relationships with others as well as the ability to communicate and to use imagination (including fantasy play). (Hirsch, Autism) There are many forms of autism: Autistic disorder; a disorder that normally affects children 3 years or younger, it effects their social interactions, communication, and imaginative play. This is the form most people think about when thinking about autism. Asperger’s syndrome; this form of autism is lesser form then that of autistic disorder. It doesn’t affect the child’s language skills, but still affects their social skills and limits their imaginative skills. Pervasive developmental disorder (PDD), also known as atypical autism; this is a kind of catchall category for children who have some autistic problems but who dont fit into other categories. (Hirsch, Understanding) Rett syndrome; children with retts, mostly turn out to be girls, tend to start out normally then start to decline. Most begin to decline at an age ranging between 1 and 4. They start to loss their communication and social skills, repetitive hand movements replace purposeful use of the hands. Childhood disintegrative disorder; these children develop normally for at least two years, and then lose some or most of their communication and social skills. (Hirsch, Understanding) Currently, the cause of autism isn’t clear. Some studies have shown that autism could be caused by genes; others show that autism could be caused by certain drugs or chemicals that the mother comes in contact with during pregnancy. Still other studies are looking at whether autism can be caused by other medical problems or by something in your child’s surroundings. Some parents have suggested that there is a link between childhood vaccines that contain mercury, and autism. This is because parents first noted the signs of autism soon after the measles, mumps, rubella (MMR) vaccine, a mercury derivative. Most cases of autism are noted during the ages of 1 and 2 years, the MMR vaccine is first given to children at 12 to 15 months of age; therefore could be just an unrelated chance occurrence. (Hirsch, Autism) So does mercury containing vaccines cause autism? According to Robert F. Kennedy, Jr., the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) officials have been aware of a link between thimerosal, another mercury derivative, and autism since 2000. In June of 2000, CDC and FDA had a study done by Tom Verstraeten. They wanted proof that a link between thimerosal and neurological disorders was not real. Unfortunately for them, the opposite was true. Verstraeten had looked over the medical records of 100,000 children in the CDC database and discovered that there was a link between thimerosal and neurological disorders. Many cases showed children with symptoms of neurological disorders, such as speech delays, attention-deficit disorder, hyperactivity, and autism, after receiving a thimerosal vaccine. (Klotter, 2006) Research on this particular subject has lead us to the CDC and the FDA’s study. It looks like the CDC and the FDA found a link between mercury-containing vaccines and autism. The question now is: have they done anything about it? References: Fernandes, T. Autism. Nursing Standard 0029-6570 (2010): 24. CINAHL Plus with Full Text. Web. 6 July 2010. . Hirsch, David. Autism Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, and More. parenting. WebMD.com, 3 Sept. 2009. Web. 6 July 2010. . Hirsch, David. Understanding Autism the Basics. Brain. WebMD.com, 20 Nov. 2009. Web. 6 July 2010. . Klotter, Jule. Thimerosal, vaccines, and autism.(vaccine preservatives thimersoal link with autism )(Report). Townsend Letter: The Examiner of Alternative Medicine 273 (2006): 28+. Academic OneFile. Web. 6 July 2010. 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Impact of consequences of globalization on consumers Research Paper

Impact of consequences of globalization on consumers - Research Paper Example Currently, increased migration of people has turned the world into a global village. In addition, transfer of information in an economic and timely manner through communication technologies has promoted cross-border interactions (Hassan & Michael, 2014). In an effort to describe the current rate of globalization, scholars agree that today, human interactions across borders are not only faster and cheaper, but also farther and deeper. As insinuated earlier, globalization impacts all the social, economic and political aspects of life. Within an economical context, international trade and investments have promoted effective transfer of goods and services across national and regional borders. Politically, governments have legislated policies that facilitate cheaper, faster and deeper movement of goods and services across borders. The social aspect of global acculturation has leveled social barriers of language and transformed the world into an interacting community (Pauline & Parsons, 2009). Globalization of commerce today entails changes in the marketing and production aspects of business. In production, companies are no longer restricted by national barriers in sourcing means of production, specifically raw materials and labor services. On the other hand, the increased decline in social, political and economic barriers has eased the selling of products and services to consumers around the globe. Technically, globa lization of marketing and production aspects of business has yielded consequences that substantially impact business stakeholders, especially consumers (Pauline & Parsons, 2009). In the context of marketing, globalization has effects on the manner in which consumers behave. Primarily, consumers refer to persons or organizations involved in the purchase of goods and services offered in the global markets. Personal consumers are known

Clinical and Laboratory Diagnosis of Salmonellosis Essay

Clinical and Laboratory Diagnosis of Salmonellosis - Essay Example Laboratory Manual and Workbook in Microbiology Applications to Patient Care). It is also called as bacillary dysentery. Universally gastro-enteritis is caused by Shigella. It may cause bloody diarrhea also called dysentery or cause non bloody diarrhea. Shigella gains entry through epithelial lining of large intestine and obliterate the intestinal mucosa. The infection is highly contagious and is responsible for over 600,000 or more deaths per year. Most victims are from developing nations and in areas of overcrowding where poor sanitation persist; jails, mental hospitals, refugee camps, daycare or in primary schools (Scarpignato, C, Lanas A, Bacterial Flora in Digestive Disease: Focus on Rifaximin (Digestion)). Classical symptoms include watery loose stool, abdominal pain, mild fever, abdominal cramps, painful stools, frequent stools with bloody mucus. Some of the strains of Shigella are known to produce toxin that result in "hemolytic uremic syndrome"( Scarpignato, C, Lanas A, Bacterial Flora in Digestive Disease: Focus on Rifaximin (Digestion)). Clinical Sample: Stool/ feces/ blood/ rectal swab (Josephine A. Laboratory Manual and Workbook in Microbiology Applications to Patient Care)Positive cultures are obtained from blood-tinged plugs of mucus of freshly passed stools. Rectal swabs are collected if arrangements are there for rapid processing of the sample or holding solution containing: buffered glycerol saline is available (Scarpignato, C, Bacterial Flora in Digestive Disease: Focus on Rifaximin (Digestion)). Microscopic Examination: Bacillary dysentery characterized by sheets of PMN Morphology & Staining: Differential Gram staining is performed show gram negative bacilli. Processing of the clinical sample is done with the following protocol to confirm causative agent. (Josephine A. Laboratory Manual and Workbook in Microbiology Applications to Patient Care) Media: Low selectivity: MacConkey, EMB Intermediate Selectivity: Xylose Lysine Desoxycholate, Desoxycholate Citrate Agar, Salmonella Shigella agar and Hektoen enteric agar (HE) Highly selective: Bismuth sulphite (BS) agar and brilliant green agar (BG). Biochemical Tests: KIA Gas H2S MR VP Ind Cit Ure Mot Pad Lys Arg Orn ONPG K/A + + + - - + - + - + +/- + - Serological Tests of Salmonellosis: Widal test (H and O agglutination for typhoid and paratyphoid patients), CIEP, Haemagglutination, ELISA, Bactericidal Antibody test, Adherence test for detection of IgM antibodies, RIA, Co-agglutination test, Latex agglutination test, PCR, Diazo test of Urine, bacteriophage typing (Josephine A. Laboratory Manual and Workbook in Microbiology Applications to Patient Care). For detection of Salmonella, 8 hour of pre-enrichment is performed, persuaded by automated DNA extraction and a sensitive real-time PCR. Optimization of this method is done to obtain highest possible yield of cells and DNA to ensuring public health (Josefsen, M. H., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2007). Serological Tests of Shigellosis: Slide agglutination with antisera for serogroup and serotype, PCR, ELISA, Monoclonal Antibodies test. Biochemical reactions: MR +, reduce nitrate to nitrite, citrate utilization-ve, inhibited by KCN, H2S-ve,catalase+ve, oxidase+ve,